Wedding Superstitions

Weddings have been celebrated since the beginning of time. So have wedding day superstitions. It is traditionally believed that weddings are susceptible to evil spirits and bad luck. Over time, wedding traditions and customs have been preserved to promote a happy, long, fertile and wealthy marriage. Here are some customs that the bride and groom might consider to ensure a successful marriage. The Engagement †¢So as not to endanger the marriage, the future bride may only propose marriage during a leap year. †¢It is a change for the worse if a future bride is to marry a man whose surname begins with the same letter as the future bride's first name. †¢In the past, it was believed that the vein on the forth finger of the left hand leads directly to the heart. An obvious finger of choice for the engagement and wedding rings. †¢The future bride must not remove the engagement ring prior to the wedding day. The Wedding Dress †¢To borrow a wedding gown brings good luck for the bride, but the lender is in for some bad luck. †¢Wedding superstitions suggest it is bad luck for the bride to make the wedding dress but the last few stitches should be completed by the bride moments before dressing. †¢It is an old tradition that the bride wears a veil. This wedding superstition helps to disguise the bride from any evil spirits. †¢A spider found in the wedding dress is particularly good luck. †¢The bride may also add a horse shoe to the wedding costume to promote good luck, with the open end up to keep the luck in. The Wedding Ceremony †¢English folklore insists that Saturday is the unluckiest day of the week to be married. The groom's birthday is the luckiest day to tie the knot. †¢For good luck, the groom must arrive at the wedding ceremony first. †¢To ensure this luck continues the bride must not be on time and should enter the ceremony with the right foot. †¢The timing of the wedding ceremony and the saying of the vows must be considered to ensure that the couple work together in the marriage. After the half hour and prior to the hour is considered lucky. †¢It is extremely unlucky if the wedding ring is dropped by the groom or the best man.

Gift of Magi Analysis Essay

The short story â€Å"The Gift of the Magi† uses elements from â€Å"How to Read Literature Like a Professor† in chapter 7 called â€Å"†¦Or the Bible.† The short story includes biblical references concerning the main theme of sacrifice and the gifts from the heart. The story also includes references to people from the Christian bible. Starting off with the title they even use a biblical reference with the â€Å"Magi.† â€Å"The Bible is full of possible titles,† from how to read literature like a professor. The Magi were in the New Testament and they were the wise men from the East who brought gifts to baby Jesus on the first Christmas. Christmas, which is a big part of the story, is also a biblical reference to the Christian religion. â€Å"O all who give and receive gifts, such as they are wisest. Everywhere they are wisest. They are the magi.† Its said in the story that Della’s hair would envy the Queen of Sheba. It also says that Jim’s watch would envy King Solomon. The Queen of Sheba and King Solomon both are famous figures from the Old Testament. Queen of Sheba and King Solomon are both known to be very rich. The comparison of Della’s hair and Jim’s watch to Queen of Sheba and King Solomon shows how important and precious those items are to Della and Jim. The story is also biblically related because Della and Jim give up the one of the most important things to them to buy presents for each other. That shows how much they love each other. This story also represents sacrifice. â€Å"Instead the story resonates with the richness of distant antecedes, with the power of accumulated myth.†

Is it accurate to describe the Global Justice Movement as a 'global Essay

Is it accurate to describe the Global Justice Movement as a 'global movement' - Essay Example For instance, the global character of these emergent social movements reflects the contemporary movement of ideas, information, products, and people. The movement of people outside national borders are viewed as outbursts of aspirations, and by itself, they are considered integral to sociological analysis (Goodwin & Jasper 2009). The French sociologist Bourdieu (2001 cited in Ruggiero 2002) asserts that governments should meddle with the rules running the economy. At the same time, he emphasises the appearance of new kinds of political movement, and new forms of organisations driven by self-supervision, and â€Å"characterised by a structural lightness allowing agents to reappropriate their role as active subjects† (Ruggiero 2002: p. 48). These present-day social movements are described to develop precise goals, to take on kinds of activity of high representative character, to be global, and to demand highly dedicated personal involvement from members, and to form themselves a s freely organised systems (Della Porta & Diani 2006). The Global Justice Movement exhibits almost all of these features. This paper tries to determine whether it is accurate to describe the Global Justice Movement as a ‘global movement’. The Contemporary Global Movement The initial years of the 21st century were a period of hope and enthusiasm for many people across the globe. A new form of social movement was developing. Driven by the dialogical and varied networks of protest envisioned by the Zapatistas, an array of popular movements and militant-directed non-governmental groups, maybe mostly but absolutely not totally from the global North, were banding together to form a mobilization of movements opposed to neoliberal globalisation (Eschle & Maiguashca 2005). Some of them are enemies of the World Trade Organisation, World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund; supporters of global finance capital taxation; critics of the strengthened control of multinational en tities; proponents of debt assistance for Third World countries; and detractors of capitalism motivated by different expressions of socialist and revolutionary principles. Nevertheless, the 9/11 attack and their consequences have raised difficult challenges to the GJM. The social significances connected to the terrorist attack in the U.S., the legitimisation of militaristic nationalism forces and the accompanied transformations in the political arena of global governance have merged to change the political setting where in the movement works (Amoore 2005). In this environment of terror and nearly unanimously exercises of U.S. power, mechanisms of political, social, and economic de-territorialisation which had reinforced the development of global movements may be more and more re-expressed in nationalistic ways (Mayo 2005). Whether the Global Justice Movement is capable of calming the neo-imperial rage, holding back the powerful drag of nationalisms, and thus preserving its thrust to wards a more unified, peaceful, and just global order remains unresolved. There are major similarities between the current global anti-war movement and GJM. These similarities attest to the fact the GJM is indeed a ‘global movement’. Primarily, a great deal of the anti-war movement has taken on GJM’s very effective network framework of global grassroots political movement feature. Second, organisations and leaders integral to the GJM have turned out to be strongly involved in the anti-war move

Water Pollution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Water Pollution - Essay Example Furthermore, the waste materials lead to a decrease in the level of oxygen, that the wildlife inside the water have access to, and this weakens their body systems, as well as proves a significant problem for the coming generations of all these plants and animals. People living in and around the area also usually consume these fish and other types of sea food from the water bodies and fall sick due to eating contaminated food too. In the 1970s, the River Tees in England faced heavy pollution for over a decade which caused a great amount of problems including the absence of Common Seals and Grey Seals from the river. However, in recent times, the estuary has undergone major improvements and the seals can now be seen once again on the Seal Sands. The absence of flora and fauna speak volumes about the drastic levels of pollution that Tees was forced to face. (D.W. Pattenden) The water underwent a large number of changes including a difference in taste, colour and volume and this has caus ed a vast amount of problems for most of the people in the area too. The river Tees is situated in the Northern part of England, rising on the Eastern slope of Cross Fell in the Northern Pennies. It flows in the eastward direction and joins the North Sea near Middlesbrough between Redcar and Hartlepool. The river flows 120km from its source and many people say that the water that forms a part of the river is often very discoloured due to heavy pollutants present within it. A Hazen scale is now used in order to understand the colour of the water. The main cause for pollution of the river was heavy industrialization and thus contaminants in the form of industrial wastes and dumping, and over 500 tonnes of these toxic contaminants were being dumped into the river each day. This caused the river to become the most polluted water body in Britain. The main effects of all these wastes were that the water temperature of the river grew to a great extent, causing a decrease in the dissolved o xygen it contained. And thus, it was no surprise that no plants or animals were able to survive properly in the water of Tees. Due to the decreased levels of wildlife survival, the problem was sought to be tackled by the concerned government departments and the main solution that they brought to the scene was declining permits and tightening the discharge permits to industries and companies situated in and around the river. In the year 1972, these changes began to be adopted and the dirt in the area soon began to decrease. (Natural Britain, The River Tees, County Durham) A great part of the land from the river Tees had also been reclaimed in order to use for building businesses, bring about leisure development, as well as maintenance for public recreation. Various actions were taken in order to clean the environment around the river, cleanse the waste and garbage material as well as take initiative to treat the domestic sewage and industrial discharges coming from the factories and industries. The main idea was for industries to understand that they cannot be harming the environment or giving rise to new technology at the cost of wildlife and nature; the heavy pollution of the river has also caused problems for people eating the contaminated fish from the very water body and thus is a threat to not only the wildlife but also to the people who live in and around the area. (Biodiversity – Rivers) After having tested the water, it was found out that the water contained toxic levels of lead and lethal levels of bacteria and protozoa which were stemming the

Are we our bodies or are we our minds Descartes and Nietzsche's Essay

Are we our bodies or are we our minds Descartes and Nietzsche's arguments - Essay Example I will discuss and compare arguments from both philosophers’ viewpoints in order to reach a conclusion. In â€Å"Meditations on First Philosophy,† Rene Descartes begins to uncover the underlying truth for humankind through various methods. His ideas and thoughts were considered radical at that time, particularly because his arguments went against those made by Aristotle, upon which society perceived truth (SparkNotes Editors). Because of this fact, Descartes tried to entice Aristotelian philosophers into reading all six meditations by starting off light. The first meditation is supposed to build the groundwork and is not supposed to come up with any quick answers. Descartes conveys to himself that whatever he thinks he knows so far must be doubted in order to build a solid foundation that cannot be proven false. He argues in the first meditation that his body is faulty and is bound to make errors. This leads him to believe that it cannot be trusted in showing him what t he real truth is. In addition, he also starts to doubt his senses as they are an extension of his body and are thus flawed. Left with knowing nothing, Descartes slowly transcends into deep thought and begins to ponder if the world in which he lives is just a â€Å"universal dream† where some evil genius is trying to manipulate him in every possible way. The first meditation literally means â€Å"concerning those things that can be called into doubt.† This meditation raises many interesting concepts that Descartes attempts to explain. Descartes doubts his own beliefs because he recalls that they have deceived him previously. His reasoning is that if we have been deceived once, then there is the possibility that we may be deceived again. To avoid this from happening, Descartes believes that we must discard the ideas and thoughts that we doubt because they are untrustworthy. From these thoughts, Descartes come up with the idea of the Dream Argument. The explanation of thi s is that if he is dreaming or is being deceived, then his beliefs are unreliable. The concept of the Dream Argument shows up in the following meditations in the form of an â€Å"evil genius† who blinds everyone and tries to deceive us for his own benefit. Descartes explains how he feels that he is dreaming even when he is not. Descartes’ Dream Argument also suggests that he now has reasons to not believe his senses any longer because his senses are the tools in which he uses to perceive things around him. The upshot of Descartes’ argument is that he needs to hold judgment on his beliefs until they can be proven beyond belief. He admits that he habitually accepts truths about the world around him without basing his beliefs on proof. Skepticism is linked throughout Descartes’ first meditation; although he admits that no one can be fully skeptical of everything without good reason. However, he argues that it is difficult to justify dismissing skepticism (Sp arkNotes Editors). After Descartes finishes the key points of his first meditation, he then moves onto the second meditation. In the next meditation, Descartes makes a distinct argument for why the mind is important in our existence and for survival, and also how it is more known than the body is. Descartes builds upon his argument from the first meditation in his second meditation. This meditation is known as â€Å"on the nature of the human mind, which is better known than the body.† Descartes pushes forward in his quest for the absolute

Menu Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Menu Analysis - Research Paper Example In essence, the prices are placed some point in the midst of a description, which does not appeal to the client. The menu design should be able to capture the client’s eyes and mind to enable quick but correct decision-making. A well-designed menu such as a letter fold format helps the customer to follow, the description as given by the hotel aide. As per the price menu under consideration, the hotel check indicates that, the hotel lies in the class of tourist, the lowest class in the hotel rating. The pricing and the foods offered indicate the class of the hotel must be low. For instance, the cost of the garden griller, which is $8.75, is relatively low compared to one or two stars hotels. The first flaw in this menu is the lack of the name of the hotel. The name of the hotel is a critical component on the menu. It adds confidence to the clients. The other flaw explicit in this menu is the use of plastic cover. This is really disorienting to the clients who judge the quality of the foods and beverage from the appearance and quality of the menu. A good menu should have a canvas or hard cover. This makes it appealing to the clients. In the case of pricing, the foods and beverages should be priced accordingly to ensure that appropriate profit margins are achieved. The dollar sign used should be avoided. Overpricing or under pricing should be avoided by first assessing the industrial average prices per a certain type of food or beverage. In addition, the anticipated profit margin should be calculated relative to the buying price of the material and the labour used. This will ensure that the hotel does not run on losses and at the same time, it does not loose customers due to exorbitant prices. This implies that, despite the menu being an internal instrument of a hotel, it should be well compared with the rest within the same industry. In essence, pricing methods such as those based on competition, factor

Where does Curatorial Practice enter your own practice Essay

Where does Curatorial Practice enter your own practice - Essay Example Curatorial practice also helps people understand the history and origins of important materials. I am a marketer by profession, and since the advent of digital curation, a new dimension of curatorial practice has emerged in the marketing field. It is known as content curation, and it is one of the hottest areas of content marketing. It plays a vital role in accomplishing various objectives, depending on how, where and how organizations use it (Rosenbaum, 2011). While content marketing in the limited sense primarily revolves around identifying, developing and sharing content to achieve business goals and what customers want across the consumer life cycle, content curation is concerned with aggregation, finding, collecting relevant content and then presenting or sharing it to audiences in an optimized or targeted manner. Content curation is more than just about presenting all types of content that marketers stumble upon (Rosenbaum, 2011). It is mainly about doing it in a clever and audience-oriented way, by concentrating on specific topics an organization wants to curate content about. Some curation models even clearly center on community marketing objectives. Content curation is part of the overall content marketing

Media, Culture and Society Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Media, Culture and Society - Assignment Example From the research, the number of female celebrities covered in the newspaper was generally lower than that of males in all the newspapers. For instance, in the Daily Mirror, the number of males covered during this period was 12 as compared to that of females which was 6. This gives approximately 33% of female celebrities out of all the celebrities covered. About 90% of the women in the magazines had their images underdressed. On the other hand images of men were well clothed. In the field of sports, the male to female ratio was 3:1.  From the research, the number of female celebrities covered in the newspaper was generally lower than that of males in all the newspapers. For instance, in the Daily Mirror, the number of males covered during this period was 12 as compared to that of females which was 6. This gives approximately 33% of female celebrities out of all the celebrities covered. About 90% of the women in the magazines had their images underdressed. On the other hand images o f men were well clothed. In the field of sports, the male to female ratio was 3:1.   Most of these newspapers showed the dominance of celebrities aged between 16-32 years. Those beyond this range were under-represented with an average percentage of about 20%.the newspapers covered very little regarding children. In addition, the newspapers presented various attitudes concerning the weight and body sizes of celebrities. Words such as ‘sexy’ and ‘hot’ were associated with slim and light weighted ladies. On the other hand, the perceptions of ladies having a weight exceeding 55kg were portrayed negatively. Most of these papers emphasized on sliming. For instance, both the ‘The Daily Mirror’ and ‘The Sun’ had an article headed â€Å"How to slim in 1 month†. Several conclusions can be pulled from this study. Generally, the males dominate the celebrity field. This implies that gender equality is suppressed in the Newspapers. In a ddition, young people are the majority in the newspapers. It can be concluded that those represented are in the sexually active age. The older generation is inactive and hence least covered.   Another important issue regards the field of sports. There are fewer females participating in the field of sports. From this, it is clear that females are not adequately presented in sports activities.

Final Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Final Reflection - Essay Example only get from the past and this assists the modern age not to indulge in certain acts that were not accepted in previous regimes and societies (Rowan 5). This was a historical park in the United States, which was and is still inhabited by the very densely populated Pueblo’s people. The part is located in New Mexico, towards the northwestern part. The park is the home of ancient ruins, where there is diverse culture, considering the location is commonly known to be a historical area. The area is known for its humongous structures made from timber and sandstone between the 900-1150 AD. The inhabitants were thought to have great skill and co-ordination when coming up with structures. The ruins are protected to the present time due to the importance and significance history has to the modern world. This is an epic story done by Indiana Jones, depicting a cultish style of religion, where the goddess named Kali existed. The palace of the goddess is said to have been an abyss, under the Pankot Palace. The historical images show that the temple was based in India, and that the temple had a lava basin, a statue of Kali, and a skull-shaped altar. The story was used to show the religious sufferings of children, who spend time below the temple mines where they were labored and mistreated to find the two Sankara stones. Religion, from the past, has been known to infringe on the rights of humans, with some acts demeaning human dignity and respect. When translated, the title simply means the book of the counsel or the book of the community. It was a mytho-historical story that tried to give man a story of his origin created by divine beings. The records indicated that the mythologies of Mesoamerican origin, with different lineages of recognized beings and figures, including Xpiyacoc and Xmucane begetting Hun and Vucub, and the lineage proceeds to the present time. The myth goes ahead to deal with how humans were created, how the migrated and filled the entire world, and

Upton Sinclair “The Jungle” Essay Example for Free

Upton Sinclair â€Å"The Jungle† Essay Upton Sinclair was a powerhouse of a writer, churning out 90 novels, 30 plays and countless articles, stories and pamphlets during his long life. In 1906, he gained fame and became a rich man after the publication of the muckraking The Jungle, a novel about the horrors of the Chicago meatpacking industry. The book helped convince Congress to pass the first Pure Food and Drug Act later that year. (Sinclair 1906) Nowadays people live in the world of economics and many people are thriving whereas many others are trying to dig through difficulties. Such struggle for survival was constant throughout the history of all societies. Sinclair’s novel â€Å"The Jungle† is one of the examples of such struggle penetrating into the conflicts of socialism, capitalism, natural selection and American dream. The novel involves readers into a journey of recent Lithuanian immigrants to America. It is seen that this journey opens anew world full of unexpected and awful events. (Sinclair 1906) Immigrants have to come to American â€Å"where in the early twentieth century it was said that any man willing to work an honest day would make a living and could support his family†. (Sinclair 1906) Sinclair telling his story stimulates reader to start symbolic war against capitalism. It is apparent that Sinclair really disguises the very idea of capitalism presenting his idea throughout the novel – from cover to cover. Capitalism in the novel is personified in the Jurgis’ desire to work, to earn more money as well as in the corruption of â€Å"the man† at the highest levels of society, etc. (Sinclair 1906) It is obvious that the symbols of capitalism and socialism are seen from the very start of the novel as they are constantly interrelated with the novel progression. Firstly, the author depicts the identity of Lithuanians considering they have the same values such as getting drunk and dancing. Sinclair makes to feel sympathy for those people as they try to preserve and follow traditions which they have brought with them from their native land. For example, everybody had his feeling of everything and strangers were always welcomed and warmly treated. In such a way the author introduces the concept of socialism meaning that everybody is equal in society. Actually the author tries to present socialism as the resolution to hi novel. Sinclair illustrates plight of the workers in Packingtown as the unfairness of capitalism. People were persuaded 5o join socialistic movement due to promised improvements in working conditions. When the main heroes – Jurgis and Ona – took a good luck for the first time, Jurgis said: â€Å"Tomorrow, I will go there and get a Job, and then we can have a place of our own†. (Sinclair 1906) Jurgis is the representative of capitalism: he is longing to work in the plant considering it is the only way to make decent living and his poverty is the main driving force. However, it bore no fruits. The next two ideas involved into novel are concepts of social Darwinism or natural selection and American dream. Upton Sinclair introduced the idea of natural selection into his novel illustrating that only the best suited were able to survive in that environment and weak had to die off. The example is the prevalence of corruption in the town. American Dream is simply ridiculed throughout the story. Sinclair provided the main hero with a strong character having good morals and willing to work hard for family survival. Actually American Dream is embodied in Jurgis – â€Å"I will work harder†. (Sinclair 1906) It is a matter of fact that capitalism is strongly criticized by Upton Sinclair throughout the novel. The author made an attempt to show the misery of capitalism leading immigrants through awful working conditions, unfair social attitude and treatment, impossibility to adapt to new world. It is apparent that Upton tried to open a door to new way of living – so-called socialism. The impact of the Sinclair’s novel on the public is strong and it is possible to suggest the novel’s function is to serve as the propaganda against capitalism. Upton Sinclair wanted people to have equal job opportunities and better living conditions. He understood the difficulties of poor people and thus he always criticized unfairness in society. References Sinclair, Upton (1906) The Jungle. New York: Doubleday, Page.

What Is A Buffer Biology Essay

What Is A Buffer Biology Essay A  buffer  is an  aqueous solution  that has a highly stable  pH. If you add  acid  or  base  to a buffered solution, its pH will not change significantly. Similarly, adding water to a buffer or allowing water to evaporate will not change the pH of a buffer. A buffer is a substance in a solution that can neutralize either an acid or a base. A substance is said to be naturally buffered if it has a buffering action in its natural state .Buffers are used in chemistry to modulate and stabilize the pH of a solution. A buffered solution can be made in a variety of ways, most simply by creating a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base. Buffers are chemicals that, when added to water, tend to maintain a certain pH. This is due to the buffers ability to either accept or donate a proton (hydrogen ion, H+) or hydroxyl (OH-) to keep the pH in a certain range. Buffers are different than strong acids and bases because buffers do not donate all of their protons or hydroxyls within their buffering range. A buffer is a substance, usually a salt, that can bind with either the positively-charged hydrogen ion of an acid or the negatively-charged hydroxide ion of a base. If a solution is buffered, acids or bases can be added to the solution without changing its pH as drastically as if the acid or base were added to an unbuffered solution Natural Buffers A solution is said to be naturally buffered if it contains buffering compounds as it exists in nature. Blood is an example of a naturally buffered solution. Blood must maintain a pH close to 7.4 in order to carry oxygen effectively and contains compounds that react to acids or bases in order to neutralize them.   PREPERATION OF BUFFER A compound can buffer the pH of a solution only when its concentration is sufficient and when the pH of the solution is close (within about one pH unit) to its pKa.   To make a buffer you must first pick a compound whose pKa  Ã‚   is close to the pH   you want for the solution, and then decide what the buffer concentration should be.   Typically, buffer concentrations are between 1 mM and 200 mM, depending on the desired ionic strength and the buffering capacity required.   If the pH is expected to decrease during the experiment, choose a buffer with a pKa  slightly below the working pH.   Conversely, if the pH is expected to increase during the experiment, select a buffer with a pKa  slightly above the working pH.   Having decided on the total buffer concentration, you must adjust the ratio of the protonated and unprotonated forms of the buffer in your solution so as to give the desired pH.   Typically, buffers are composed of   weak acids and their salts, or w eak bases and their salts.   If the protonated form is uncharged, it is an acid (like acetic acid), and its unprotonated form is a salt (e.g., sodium acetate).   Conversely, if the unprotonated form is uncharged it is a base (like Tris base), and its protonated form is a salt (e.g., TrisHCl). Four practical ways to make a buffer are described below: The Slow and Stupid Method    To avoid adding extra salt to a solution, prepare a buffer composed of an acid and its salt by dissolving the acid form of the buffer in about ~60% of the water required for the final solution volume.   Adjust the pH using a strong base, such as NaOH.   When preparing a buffer composed of a base and its salt, start with the base form and adjust the pH with strong acid, such as HCl.   After the pH is correct, dilute to just under the final solution volume.   Check the pH and correct if necessary, then add water to the final volume.   Advantages:  Easy to understand.   Disadvantages:  Slow.   May require lots of base (or acid).   If the base (or acid) is concentrated, it is easy to overshoot the pH. If the base (or acid) is dilute, it is easy to overshoot the volume.   Ionic strength will be unknown. Adding a strong acid or base can result in temperature changes, which will make pH readings inaccurate (due to its dependence to temperature) unless the solution is brought back to its initial temperature.   (2)The Mentally Taxing Method   Using the buffer pKa  , calculate the amounts (in moles) of acid/salt or base/salt present in the buffer at the desired pH.   If both forms (i.e., the acid and the salt) are available, convert the amount required from moles to grams, using the molecular weight of that component, and the weigh out the correct amounts of   both forms.   If only one form is available, you can prepare the buffer by adding all of the buffer as one form, and then adding acid or base to convert some of the added buffer to the other form.   Decide what the total concentration of buffer will be in the solution, and convert the concentration to amount (in moles) using the volume of solution, and then to grams, using the molecular weight of the buffer form available.   Then calculate the amounts (in moles) of each form that will be present in the final solution, using the buffer pKa  Ã‚  and the desired pH.  Ã‚   Then calculate how much strong acid or base must be added to convert enough of the buffer form added to the other form,   to give the correct amounts of each form at the pH of the final solution.   Dissolve the buffer and strong acid or base in slightly less water than is required for the final solution volume.   Check the pH and correct if necessary.   Add water to the final volume. Advantages:  Fast.   Easy to prepare.   Additional pH adjustment is rarely necessary, and when necessary, the adjustment is small. Ionic strength easily calculated. The Two Solution Method   Make separate solutions of   the acid form and base form of the buffer, both solutions having   the same buffer concentration (and ionic strength, if required) as the concentration of total buffer in the final solution.   To obtain the desired pH, add one solution to the other while monitoring the pH with a pH meter.   Advantages:   Easy to do.   Disadvantages:  Requires both forms of buffer.   The required solution volumes are proportional to the ratio of buffer components in the final solution at the desired final pH, so making equal amounts of each form may waste a lot of one solution. The Completely Mindless Method   Find a table of the correct amounts of acid/salt or base/salt required for different pHs, and dissolve the components in slightly less water than is required for the final solution volume.   Check that the pH and correct if necessary. Add water to the final volume.   Advantages:  Easy to do (with appropriate table).   Convenient for frequently prepared buffers.   Disadvantages:  May be impossible to find table.   Table may be incorrect.   Requires both forms of buffer.   Component amounts from table will need to be adjusted to give the buffer concentration and volume in your solution. Ionic strength is unknown.   Common Buffer Preparations   Buffer Stock Soln Components Amount per Liter Soln. Conc. Stock Soln Final Conc.   PBS  Ã‚   (Phosphate Buffered Saline)  Ã‚   adj. pH ~7.3   10X NaCl  Ã‚   KCl  Ã‚   Na2HPO4Æ’Æ’-7H2O  Ã‚   KH2PO4   80 g  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   2 g  Ã‚     11.5 g  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   2 g   1.37 M  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   27 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   43 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   14 mM 137 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   2.7 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   4.3 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   1.4 Mm   SSC  Ã‚   adj. pH ~7.0   20X NaCl  Ã‚   Sodium citrate   175 g  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   88 g   3 M  Ã‚     0.3 M   150 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   15 Mm   STE   (Saline Tris EDTA)     1X Tris base  Ã‚   NaCl  Ã‚   EDTA (acid)    1.2 g  Ã‚      0.6 g  Ã‚      0.29 g   10 mM  Ã‚     10 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   1 mM   10 mM  Ã‚     10 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   1 mM   TAE  Ã‚   (Tris acetate EDTA)  Ã‚   pH ~8.5   50X Tris base  Ã‚   Acetic acid (glacial)  Ã‚   EDTA   242 g  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   57.1 mL    37.2 g     2 M (Tris acetate) 0.1 M      40 mM (Tris acetate)  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   2 mM   TBE   (Tris borate EDTA)  Ã‚   pH ~8.0   10X   Tris base  Ã‚     Boric acid  Ã‚     EDTA   108 g  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   55 g  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   40 mL   (0.5 M pH 8)     0.89 M  Ã‚     0.89 M  Ã‚     0.02 M   89 mM  Ã‚     89 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   2 mM   TE  Ã‚   (Tris EDTA)  Ã‚   pH ~7.5   1X Tris base  Ã‚   H2  EDTA (acid)   1.2 g  Ã‚     0.29 g   10 mM  Ã‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   1 mM   Useful buffer mixtures Components pH range HCl,  Sodium citrate 1 5 Citric acid,  Sodium citrate 2.5 5.6 Acetic acid,  Sodium acetate 3.7 5.6 K2HPO4,  KH2PO4 5.8 8  [3] Na2HPO4,  NaH2PO4 6 7.5  [4] Borax,  Sodium hydroxide 9.2 11   Universal buffer mixtures By combining substances with pKa  values differing by only two or less and adjusting the pH a wide-range of buffers can be obtained.  Citric acid  is a useful component of a buffer mixture because it has three pKa  values, separated by less than two. The buffer range can be extended by adding other buffering agents. The following two-component mixtures (McIlvaines buffer solutions) have a buffer range of pH 3 to 8. 0.2M Na2HPO4  /mL 0.1M Citric Acid /Ml pH 20.55 79.45 3.0 38.55 61.45 4.0 51.50 48.50 5.0 63.15 36.85 6.0 82.35 17.65 7.0 97.25 2.75 8.0 A mixture containing  citric acid,  potassium dihydrogen phosphate,  boric acid, and  diethyl barbituric acid  can be made to cover the pH range 2.6 to 12.[6] Other universal buffers are  Carmody buffer  and  Britton-Robinson buffer, developed in 1931. Significance:- An important number for any aqueous solution is its pH. The pH is the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions (often represented as a hydronium ion, which is a water molecule with an extra proton attached). Anything with a pH of less than 7 is considered to be acidic, and a solution that has a pH of greater than 7 is basic. Pure water, which has an equal amount of acid and base in it, is defined as having a pH of 7. Identification:- Buffered solutions are used to make a solution that exhibits very little change in its pH when small amounts of an acid or base are added to it. A buffer can be made by addition of a weak acid and its conjugate base to a solution. Alternately, a weak base and its conjugate acid can be used. Buffers are most effective when the amounts of the weak acid/base and the conjugate base/acid are usedgenerally to be effective, neither quantity should be more than 10 times that of the other. Control of ph by buffer Buffers are chemicals that, when added to water, tend to maintain a certain pH. This is due to the buffers ability to either accept or donate a proton (hydrogen ion, H+) or hydroxyl (OH-) to keep the pH in a certain range. Buffers are different than strong acids and bases because buffers do not donate all of their protons or hydroxyls within their buffering range. Background:- The measure of pH gives the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. Pure water has a pH of 7.0 and has an equal balance of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions. The pH will be lower if an acid is added and higher if a base is added. For various purposes, it is useful to add a buffer so that the pH remains constant even if an acid or base is added to the solution. Buffers are used to maintain constant pH. Buffer Equilibrium:- Different buffers  work  at different pHs. A buffer is most efficient at maintaining a constant pH when the pH equals its acid dissociation constant, its pKa. At this pH, the buffer consists of an equal solution of protonated and de-protonated conjugate base. This often denoted by a theoretical buffer molecule, AH, dissociating into a proton, H+, and the conjugate base, A-. The pKa is determined by the pH where the concentration of AH equals the concentration of A-. Buffering Acids:- At its pKa, a buffer can maintain a constant pH by accepting free protons. Adding an acid to the solution, such as HCl, will cause free protons to enter the solution. The conjugate base will accept the free protons, causing the pH to be unchanged. The solution will remain at the same pH as long as there is enough conjugate base to accept the additional protons. The reaction can be written as the dissolution of the acid: HCLH+ + Cl- leading to free H+ in the solution. The further reaction with the buffer occurs: H+ + A- HA. This removes the free protons and constant pH is maintained. Buffering Bases:- Adding a base such as sodium hydroxide to a solution will cause an increase in the hydroxyl concentration. In a buffered solution, the protons attached to the undissociated buffer are donated to the solution, forming H2O with the free hydroxyls. This counters the effect of the base and maintains the pH of the solution as long as there is undissociated buffer available in the solution. In this case, the reaction can be written as the dissolution of the base: NaOH Na+ + OH- leading to the second reaction of OH- + HA H2O + A-. Different Buffers:- Different buffers have different pKas and can be used to buffer solutions at a wide range of pHs. Chemicals used as buffers often have the ability to donate or accept multiple protons or bases. These buffers hence have two or more different pKas corresponding to how many protons or hydroxyls per molecule they can donate or accept. Different buffer molecules can be combined to form customized buffer ranges. For a list of biological buffers, see Resources. WORKING OF BUFFER When hydrogen ions are added to a buffer, they will be neutralized by the base in the buffer. Hydroxide ions will be neutralized by the acid. These neutralization reactions will not have much effect on the overall pH of the buffer solution. When you select an acid for a buffer solution, try to choose an acid that has a pKa  close to your desired pH. This will give your buffer nearly equivalent amounts of acid and conjugate base so it will be able to neutralize as much H+  and OH-  as possible. PURPOSE OF BUFFER:- A buffer solution is used to resist changes in pH when a certain amount of strong acid or base is added to the solution. It is an important part of biological systems in living organisms as well as in the laboratory. The reason a buffer works to maintain a certain pH is that the concentration of weak acid and base is kept in a specific ratio in line with the acid titration curve. The titration curve A titration curve is a graph that relates the relative concentrations of a weak acid to its conjugate base by graphing pH versus amount of base added. In the region of the titration curve where the graph is almost flat, the pH changes very little with added base and therefore this would be a good pH for the buffer. Buffer in cells and blood The main buffer found in living cells is the H2PO4/HPO4- buffer pair. In blood, the main buffer is the H2CO3/HCO3- pair. This system relies on dissociation of carbonic acid, which has a pKa of 6.37. The pH of human blood needs to remain at around a pH of 7.4 and therefore the system also involves carbon dioxide transported to the lungs. Phosphate buffer The phosphate buffer is based on tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane or TRIS. This buffer has a pKa of 8.3 and is found both in living organisms as well as used in the laboratory. It is a good buffer because it does not tend to interfere with the system being studied. Buffers in enzymatic reactions Laboratory methods to isolate an enzyme use buffered solutions because an enzyme can only function in a narrow pH range. Enzymes are very sensitive to pH as well as salt concentrations. Therefore, it is important to use a buffer with a very good buffering capacity for the specific pH in order for the experiment to be successful. Physiological consequences Respiration plays a role in buffering of blood by controlling the rate of respiration depending on the need for hydrogen ions or increased acidity. Increasing the rate of respiration is helpful when there is a buildup of hydrogen ions or acidity in the blood. The H+ ions bind to bicarbonate to form carbonic acid. This raises the level of carbon dioxide in the lungs. Increasing the level of respiration removes the excess carbon dioxide. Therefore, here the buffering system is used to keep pH level of the blood within the required narrow range. Features:- The pH of a buffered solution is defined by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, which states that the pH of a solution is equal to the acid dissociation constant of the weak acid plus the logarithm of the ratio of the concentrations of conjugate base to the weak acid. The acid dissociation constant is a number that defines the tendency of an acid to dissociate and form hydrogen ions. A strong acid will have a very low dissociation constant, whereas a weaker one may have a significantly higher one, around 5. Considerations:- Buffered solutions have many applications in chemical manufacturing for processes that require a specific pH range to  work. This is also true for the human body, which contains many enzymes that are only functional at a specific pH. Outside of this range, the enzymes are either unable to catalyze reactions, or in some case will misfold and become broken down; thus, a mixture of carbonic acid and bicarbonate is used by the body to keep pH of the blood between 7.35 and 7.45.

The Alfred Hitchcock Signature in his Films, Shadow of a Doubt and Vertigo :: Movie Film Essays

The Alfred Hitchcock Signature in his Films, Shadow of a Doubt and Vertigo All directors of major motion pictures have specific styles or signatures that they add in their work. Alfred Hitchcock, one of the greatest directors of all time, has a particularly unique style in the way he creates his films. Film analyzers classify his distinctive style as the â€Å"Alfred Hitchcock signature†. Hitchcock’s signatures vary from his cameo appearances to his portrayal of a specific character. Two perfect examples of how Hitchcock implements his infamous â€Å"signatures† are in the movies, A Shadow of a Doubt and Vertigo. In these movies, numerous examples show how Hitchcock exclusively develops his imagination in his films. One major attribute in Hitchcock films is how creatively Hitchcock tricks the audience about the fate of the characters and the sequence of events. Many people argue that it is a tactic by Hitchcock to surprise his audience in order to increase the suspense of the movie. For example, in Shadow of a Doubt, the audience assumes that young Charlie is an innocent young girl who loves her uncle dearly. However as the movie progresses, Young Charlie is not as innocent as the audience suspects. Young Charlie, once a guiltless child, ends up killing her evil uncle. In Vertigo, the same Hitchcock trickery takes place. In the beginning, the audience has the impression that the Blond women is possessed by another woman who is trying to kill her. The audience also has the notion that the detective is a happy man who will solve the murder case correctly. Just before the movie ends, the audience realizes that the detective was specifically hired by a man to kill his wife. The detective, in the end , seems to be the hopeless, sad victim. In these movies, there are also signatures of Hitchcock that show doubling.

Maurice Sendak’s Where the Wild Things Are, In the Night Kitchen, and O

Maurice Sendak’s Where the Wild Things Are, In the Night Kitchen, and Outside Over There The three titles of Maurice Sendak’s famous picture book trilogy, Where the Wild Things Are, In the Night Kitchen, and Outside Over There, name what Judith Butler calls â€Å"zones of uninhabitability,† places of abjection that form the borders of the self as both its constitutive outside and its intimate interior. These are dangerous places in the geography of childhood, places where the child’s very life and sense of self is threatened. More frightening still, they are present places, places that exist in the same time that the child inhabits, rather than the once upon a mythical time of fairy tales and legends. Hence they are places that beckon the child to trespass the boundaries of their current lived social and material landscapes and explore. What does happen where the wild things are? What goes on in the night kitchen? What fascinations lurk outside over there? Indeed because they are the mysterious places belonging specifically to childhood, Max, Mickey, and Ida negotiate these places such that they are more comfortable and empowered within these borderlands than they are on the outside. Max becomes King of the Wild Things, Mickey is the hero of the night kitchen, and Ida rescues her sister from the goblins that inhabit â€Å"outside over there.† Even though the protagonist of each book is different, there is nonetheless the sense that this trilogy tells a developmental story, a story of the ways in which a clean and proper social body emerges or is constituted through certain exclusions, and how that which has been abjected returns in both threatening and joyful guises. Thus a reading of these stories as a developmental narrative where... ... embodiment that must be worked through in childhood—fantasies of cannibalistic consumption, of the morph-ability of bodies, of infantile sexuality—in order to construct the lived body of adulthood. But as Sendak understands, these fantasies never completely go away, but always return to haunt or thrill the adult subject as terror and jouissance. Works Cited: Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of â€Å"Sex.† New York: Routledge, 1993. Kristeva, Julia. â€Å"Place Names.† Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. Ed. by Leon S. Roudiez. New York: Columbia UP, 1980. Powers of Horror. Trans. by Leon S. Roudiez. New York: Columbia UP, 1982. Sendak, Maurice. In the Night Kitchen. New York: Harper & Row, 1970. Outside Over There. New York: Harper & Row, 1981. Where the Wild Things Are. New York: Harper & Row, 1963.

Alternative Fuel :: Hydrogen Fuel H2/02

Hydrogen can be "packaged" in several ways, as a fuel gas in a H2/02 powered engine or the newly devised solid state pellet of hydrogen isotopes that contains about the equivalent of 5000 cubic feet of hydrogen and is broken down and releases gas into the second chamber where it goes to the engine for use. There are many ways to get pure hydrogen out of many compounds using methods such as electrolysis and chemical reactions. One of the easiest ways is using a chemical reaction. Simple chemicals (aluminum,sodium hydroxide, and water) can be reacted in the home to produce heavy hydrogen to power your furnace or your hot water heater . No electrical power at all is required. The reaction also gives off a tremendous amount of heat. Even the waste heat could be captured for heating the house. The resulting sodium aluminate is harmless and could be collected at recoiling centers for complete acid/base neutralization. This way is a simpler way than electrolysis produce hydrogen for heating the home, because in a automobile it would be harder to do. Electrolysis is another way to produce hydrogen electronically. It is a way that I am more familiar with because I do it quite a bit in my room and have done several experiments with it. Electrolysis will produce a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen out of water. higher voltages will give you faster collection. With a 12-volt battery it took around a half an hour to get a quarter of a mountain dew bottle filled with a catalyst of a small amount of Baking Soda. I used it because it was cheap and I knew it worked. Another time I used a 75 volt / 2 amp power supply with a catalyst of 2 drops of sulfuric acid to a pint of water and the result was very differing from the last time. I filled the whole mountain dew bottle in less than 6 minutes. All of that gas came from a little less than a drop of water(when I light it off there was only a little spec of water on the

Nurse Shortage Approaches Essay

When nurses are forced to work with high nurse to patient ratios, patients can develop a variety of infections, get injured, and can lead to death. Often at times patients are discharged home too soon without adequate education about how to manage their illness or injury (Raquel & Sean, 2011). Because of patients being discharged to soon, this causes them to return back to the hospital often sicker than they were before. Increase in rate of admissions, transfers, and discharges on hospital unit’s raises nurses’ workload. When nurses have fewer patients, they are able to provide high quality care (Raquel & Sean, 2011). A quantitative research was done based on knowledge of unit’s attribute and shift by shift nurse staffing levels. The researchers inspected 43 units of medical and surgical patient’s mortality in an infamous magnet hospital here in United States. The units and shifts staffing data from 2003 to 2006 were obtained and consolidated with patient data resulting in 3.2 million unit shifts for 197961 patients. The outcome of two staffing variables were scrutinize using a shift unit level: understaffing actual registered nurses staffing eight hours or more below target staffing levels generated by a patient classification system and high turnover which means unit admissions, transfers and discharges exceeds mean day shift by one standard deviation. Patient survival rate was analyzed using Cox proportional hazard regression models with adjustment for clients, unit and shifts risk covariates was practiced. The risk adjust mortality was evaluated to staffing and turnover within the first 5 to 30 days after admission and during previous shifts. The result was dangerous ratios (Raquel & Sean, 2011). The result shows that each shift and unit that where understaffed by 4 to 7% and also has high turnover the risk of patient’s death increases by 2 to 5%. The authors also pointed out that low acuity patient on units that are understaffed, the risk of death is 4 to 12% and with high turnover the risk of death is 7 to 15% (Raquel & Sean, 2011). The strength of the study is that the researcher was able to analyzed  patients in the units, staffing, shifts levels and turnover. The authors pointed out that the limitation in the study is that the patient sample was not identical; some confounding of staffing decision with patient clinical conditions and differentials in staffing could have influence the study. The authors elaborated that the findings in this study is consistent with previous association between registered nurse coverage and lower hospital mortality rate, (Raquel & Sean, 2011). Contrast and Compare Nursing Leaders Sigma Theta Tau International (STTI) and 40 other healthcare groups of organizations and leaders are helping to find solutions on the war of nurse shortage. The affiliation designed a website, made advertising movements and secured media footage (Sigma Theta Tau International). These measures were being done as a way to entice young people to enter the nursing profession. The advertisement measures also helped to spread the word to the public of the drastic need for nurses. STTI has risen over $1 million dollars to help towards the campaign of nurse shortage. The campaign continues to receive new coverage nationwide to raise awareness of the nurse shortage (Sigma Theta Tau International). Johnson & Johnson and The Honor Society of Nursing worked together and contribute $20 million a year towards campaign to scale down on nurse shortage. The goal of Johnson & Johnson and The Honor Society campaign is to attract people to work in hospitals and extended care facilities (Sigma Theta Tau International). August 1, 2002 the former president Bush, signed Nurse Reinvestment Act. The Nurse Reinvestment Act is intended to alleviate the nursing shortage by offering incentives with tuition reimbursements. The Nurse Reinvestment Act details five main functions: Scholarship for future nursing students with loan reimbursement programs. Public business announcement to entice people to enroll in nursing programs (ANA 2015). Career advancements programs for workers that would like to further their profession. Awarding grants to administrators for magnet programs. More focus on gerontology programs by offering grants for long-term care training. Fast track staffing reimbursement programs for those who decide to teach nursing curriculum (ANA 2015). Contrast and Compare Nursing Managers Mangers can help decrease nurse shortage by increasing the staff morale on the units. New nurses often feel intimidated; some are giving tough assignments that they may need help with. As a manger overlooking is essential to make sure the work load is evenly distributed (ANA 2014). Management by Walking around (MBWA) is a manger that is always on the move making their rounds. When making rounds focus on what the staff is doing, offer help if needed, interact with the family members and the staff. This type of manger is in long-term care facilities. By making rounds you can ensure that all staff is being treated fairly, you are able to see what works and does not work (ANA 2014). My Personal and Professional Leadership Style As a nursing leader I prefer Transformational Leadership style. With transformational leadership the focus is on motivating and constructing relationships among the staff, so that the same mission and vision can be obtained. Transformational are good communicators, they use their charm to get people to see the perspective on situations. Praise and encouragement is often used by transformational leaders, I am also a great problem solver both at work and at home. As a nurse manager my approach would be to continue community with the staff and encourage the staff through humanizing nursing theory. A good manager will treat their employees with a holistic approach. It is not every day that the workers are working up to 100%; they could be having a personal problem. Continue to be assertive when needed, confront and deal with conflicts as they arise. When you treat your employees with respect, dignity, and allow autonomy they will be willing to work hard at their jobs. Summary Hospitals used both per diem nurses and traveling nurses who sign short-term contracts to fill individual shifts and accommodate short-term staffing needs arising from staff vacations or medical leaves. Some hospitals used internal staffing agencies or float pools. The downsides to these strategies include high cost and decreased quality of care. Hospitals looking for more long term strategies are investing more in nurse education, lower nurse to patient ratios or limiting volume of patients so not to overload available staff. Hospitals are also partnering with nursing schools  in an effort to grow population of new nurses and possibly secure contracts with students who attend clinical at their facilities. Nursing shortage can lead to increase patient harm and decrease in access to quality care. The nursing shortage is not a quick fix, but acknowledgment of the problem is a beginning to a solution. It is imperative that health care facilities staff their units properly so that the patients will receive quality care that they deserve. Understaffed and high turnover shifts increase the risk of death. References American Nurses Association (ANA 2014). Nursing leadership, management and leadership style. Retrieved on April 22, 2015 from. http://www.aanac.org/docs/white-papers/2013-nursing-leadership—management-leadership-styles.pdf?sfvrsn=4 American Nurses Association (ANA 2015). Nurse reinvestment act background. Retrieved on April 22, 2015 from. http://www.nursingworld.org/NurseReinvestmentAct.aspx Raquel, M., & Sean, C. (2011). Staffing with nurse understaffing and high patient churn linked to heightened inpatient mortality risk in a single site study. Evidence based nursing, Vol. 14, p122-123. Retrieved on April 22, 2015 from. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ebn.2011.100052 Sigma Theta Tau International (1199-2015). Honor Society of Nursing. Facts on the nursing shortage in North America. Retrieved on April 22, 2015, from. http://www.nursingsociety.org/Pages/default.aspx

Mitosis and Cell Cycle Study

Cell Growth and Reproduction Study Guide The Cell Cycle Study Guide Vocabulary – Cell Cycle, Mitosis, CytokinesisHow did the G1 and G2 stages get their names?Cells must pass through a critical checkpoint during which two stages of the cell cycle?Where does DNA synthesis happen in eukaryotic cells?What two processes make up the M stage?Among different types of cells, which stage of the cell cycle varies most in length?Why does a skin cell divide more often than a liver cell?What is G0?Write an analogy to explain why cell size is limited.Which typically increases faster as a cell grows, surface area or volume?For cells to stay the same size from generation to generation, what two things must be coordinated?Think of an example of a cycle. What does this have in common with the cell cycle?What process divides a cell’s cytoplasm? How do the two word parts of your answer help you remember it?What process divides the cell nucleus and its contents?Related article: co.uk/mitosis -replication-of-eukaryotic-cells/">How Many Spores Would You Estimate are Present on the Gills of a Single Cap of CoprinusMitosis and Cytokinesis Study Guide Vocabulary: chromosome, histone, chromatin, chromatid, centromere, telomere, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophaseWhat is a chromosome?Why do chromosomes condense at the start of mitosis?Why are chromosomes not condensed during all stages of the cell cycle?Sketch how DNA goes from a long stringy form to a tightly condensed form. Label the parts of the condensed, duplicated chromosome.How does interphase prepare a cell to divide?Mitosis occurs in what types of cells?Develop a device, such as a short sentence or phrase, to help you remember the order of the steps of mitosis.Illustrate and describe the four phases of mitosis.How does cytokinesis differ between plant and animal cells?DNA wraps around organizing proteins called .The suffix –tin indicates that something is stretched and thin. Is the loose combination of DNA and proteins that looks sort of like spaghetti.Sister chromatids are held together at the which looks pinched.The ends of DNA molecules form structures called that help prevent the loss of genes. Regulation of the Cell Cycle Study GuideVocabulary: growth factor, apoptosis, cancer, benign, malignant, metastasize, carcinogenWhat regulates the cell cycle?What is apoptosis?What type of disease may result if cell division is not properly regulated?List three ways mutations can occur in genes involved in cell-cycle regulation.What does metastasize mean?What is a substance know to produce or promote the development of cancer?Draw a cartoon to help you remember the difference between benign and malignant. Asexual Reproduction Study Guide Vocabulary: asexual reproduction, binary fission.1. Offspring resulting from asexual reproduction and those resulting from sexual reproduction differ in one major way. What is the difference?2. Sketch and describe the three steps of binary fission. Fill in the chart below to highlight the advantage and disadvantages of asexual reproduction. Advantages| Disadvantages|3. | | 4. | | 5. | |6. If a eukaryotic organism reproduces through mitosis, what is true about the offspring and the parent organism?7. In what types of organisms is mitotic reproduction most common?8. List three examples of mitotic reproduction. 9. What forms of reproduction does the sea anemone use?10. Write a word that starts with the letters â€Å"bi†. Explain what is similar between the meaning of the word you wrote and the meaning of â€Å"binary fission†.11. What is the creation of offspring form only one parent organism called?Multicellular Life Study Guide Vocabulary: tissue, organ, organ system, cell differentiation, stem cellList the levels of organization and explain each.List two examples of tissues found in plants.List two examples of organ systems found in plants.How does an organism benefit from organ systems that work together and communicat e?What is the process by which unspecialized cells develop into specialized cells?Do different types of cells have different DNA? Explain.What role does cell location play within a developing embryo?How do stem cells differentiate out into different cells?List the three identifying characteristics of stem cells.List one advantage of using adult stem cells and one advantage of using embryonic stem cells.What is cell differentiation?Write the following words in order from the largest structure to the smallest structure:

How Electrical and Neurochemical Activity of the Brain Is Related to Behaviour Essay

In order for the brain to function correctly in an effective and efficient way it relies on the support from nerve cells that are responsible for the relay of vital information to and from the brain. This information is required to help us know how to feel, behave and perform depending on the different situations. Therefore the circuit of neurons or nerve cells develop a system where they process the information from cell to cell via the synapse eventually leading to the brain which controls how we behave and feel. This system is based on electrical and neurochemical activity performed by the brain. Presynaptic cells release chemicals known as neurotransmitters into synapses, which allow an electrical or chemical signal to pass to another cell. These signals eventually travel their way to the brain via the central nervous system, where in turn the brain releases a message that directs the body on how to deal or cope with the stimulus. There are many known diseases that can influence this process causing neurological problems, amongst drug abuse, alcoholism and brain damage is illnesses that are degenerative diseases that cause damage to the nerve cells which in turn leads to behavioural and psychiatric problems, one of these being Alzheimer’s disease (Alzheimer 1907). Alzheimer’s is the result of decreased brain size which occurs when a huge portion of nerve cells die and the tissue in the brain reduces in size. The detoriation and reduced levels of the nerve cells means that nerves are not able to respond as well as they should be able too. This in turn causes chemical disruption which then slows down the transmission of chemical impulses. Alzheimer’s affects the different areas of the brain. It causes the cortex to shrivel up which damages areas required for thinking, planning and remembering. It causes the hippocampus to also shrink which is required to help build new memories. The disease also makes the ventricles (fluid filled spaces in the brain) to grow larger than normal. Scientists have discovered that patients diagnosed with Alzheimer’s tend to have fewer nerve cells and synapses in the brain. The brain holds abnormal clusters of proteins (plaques) which tend to build up between the nerve cells which make it harder for the synapses to perform their job of transferring messages to another cell. This means the nerve ells eventually die and develop tangles which are twisted strands of protein. These tangles destroy the cell transport system by preventing nutrients and other essential supplies travelling too other cells, therefore these cells eventually die. Due to the cells dying the brain begins to shrink therefore sacrificing areas of the brain that is required for everyday life, this than leads onto behavioural problems caused by insufficient neural activity. An Alzheimer suffer will show repetitive behaviour where they constantly ask the same question or perform the same action continuously; this is due to the damage of the brain. They will also become restless and suffer with sleep deprivation which can lead to agitation and frustration. This is all the result of change in neural activity and despite drugs being prescribed the patient will still experience anxiety and depression which leads to violent and abusive outbursts. A common behavioural symptom is also experiencing hallucinations and delusions that are frustrating for both the sufferer and their support network. These symptoms and effects of Alzheimer’s are all due to the disruption in neural activity which is caused by the shrinking of the brain due to inadequate functioning of nerve cells. The effect of different areas of the brain shrinking means that they are not able to perform their job as well as a healthy brain can.

Literature review Essay

A reasonable risk assessment of sex offenders, when combined with good parole supervision and a community-based treatment program aimed at relapse prevention, effectively reduces recidivism. This was the finding of a study conducted by Wilson, Stewart, Stirpe, Barrett, and Cripps in Canada. Published in 2000, the study covered 107 sex offenders who were released to the custody of the Central Ontario District during a period of eight years starting in 1990. According to the authors, their study outlined the general principles laid down by Motiuk, Belcourt, and Bonta in 1995, namely: careful and continuous evaluation of offender risk which ensures that highly dangerous offenders were not allowed to return to the community by sentencing them to life in prison; focusing on criminal behavior when conducting intervention programs with the help of qualified psychologists; effective monitoring of the returning offenders’ activities in the community by employing only competent parole personnel trained in the principles of relapse prevention; and an honest exchange of information among the relatives of sex offenders, the parole personnel, and the treatment staff in order to achieve the right mix of treatment intervention and parole supervision. Wilson et al (2000) found that the strategy resulted to a low 3. 7% recidivism compared to the 5. 4% cited by the study of Motiuk and Brown, and the 6.3% recidivism rate which came out of the study conducted by Barbaree, Seto, and Maric. Both studies were completed in 1996 (Wilson, Stewart, Stirpe, Barrett, and Cripps, 2000). In West Virginia, Gordon and Weldon (2003). Examined the effect of educational programs on recidivism. Studying the records of inmates who attended the General Educational Development (GED) and the Vocational training programs conducted from 1999-2000 at Huttonsville Correctional Center, they found that a recidivism rate of 8. 75% was recorded for those who completed the vocational training program. Inmates who went through both the vocational training program and the GED, on the other hand, reported a lower 6. 71% recidivism rate. Both figures were way below the recidivism rate of 26% which was observed on inmates who did not participate in either educational program. These results were comparative to the findings of a study made by Mace in 1978 of 320 inmates who were discharged from correctional institutions in West Virginia in 1973. Out of the 320, 76 were rearrested after four years, 21 (or 6. 56%) of whom were products of educational programs behind bars while 55 (or 17. 19%) did not attend any educational program while being incarcerated (Gordon and Weldon, 2003). Meanwhile, two cost-effective programs were the subject of an article authored by Harvey Shrum in 2004. Published in the Journal of Correctional Education, the article discussed two additional practices called logotherapy and intensive journal which, according to him, were better at reducing â€Å"future criminality† of both offenders and potential offenders than punishment and surveillance-based programs. Logotherapy, which means â€Å"health through meaning,† was developed by Dr. Viktor Frankl as an effective substitute to the 12-step program of rehabilitation for drug and alcohol abusers generally accepted by most parole boards. The program aims to provide inmates with a â€Å"purpose and direction in life. † Introduced forty years ago to inmates of a California Rehabilitation Center, program participants reported a recidivism rate of 5. 5%. When it was re-introduced to nineteen inmates of Folsom State Prison in 1998, the three participants who were released on parole reported a zero percent recidivism by year 2004. Intensive journal, on the other hand, was first introduced at Folsom State Prison in 1992. Created by Dr. Ira Progoff, it is a â€Å"method of self-development† that makes use of writing exercises. Inmates were made to write about their experiences, relationships with their families, their jobs and health, and the meaning that they give to their lives in a journal. These journals were reviewed and feedbacks were provided. By 2002, ten years after the program was introduced, no participant was ever rearrested (Shrum, 2004). The debate on the value of using recidivism to measure the effectiveness and efficiency of correctional programs continues and, in fact, polarized justice scholars. A dissenting opinion was voiced by Thomas in 2005 when he said that prison facilities and programs have no influence over the behavior of inmates once they return to their communities. He argued that communities are influenced by certain social, cultural, and economic factors which are beyond the control of prison facilities. Policymakers and academics, however, refuse to budge. They insist that there is no other, better measure than the rate of recidivism. According to these academics and policymakers, effective rehabilitation measures should be able to provide inmates with coping mechanisms necessary for them to deal with the â€Å"economic, social, and cultural stresses of post-release life. † In the same vein, they argue that effective deterrence programs should produce inmates who should have learned enough lessons during incarceration to dissuade them from returning to a life of crime. In both cases, they maintain that low recidivism should be the direct result. Although inclined towards the use of recidivism, Maxwell, in an article entitled: â€Å"Rethinking the Broad Sweep of Recidivism: A Task for Evaluators,† suggested that academics should not stop looking for less familiar methods of approaching the problem while policymakers should maintain an open mind so that like policy questions could be considered more objectively (Maxwell, 2005). References Gordon, H. R. D., and Weldon, B. (2003). The Impact of Career and Technical Education Programs on Adult Offenders: Learning Behind Bars. Journal of Correctional Education, 54, 4, 200-209. Maxwell, S. R. (2005). RETHINKING THE BROAD SWEEP OF RECIDIVISM: A TASK FOR EVALUATORS. Criminology & Public Policy, 4, 3, 519-526. Shrum, H. (2004). No Longer Theory: Correctional Practices That Work. Journal of Correctional Education, 55, 3, 225-235. Wilson, R. J. , Stewart, L. , Stirpe, T. , Barrett, M. , and Cripps, J. E. (2000). Community-based sex offender management: Combining parole supervision and treatment to reduce recidivism. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 42, 2, 177-188.

Dell Inspiron 700m Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dell Inspiron 700m - Essay Example Dell Inspiron 700m is one of the most popular laptops in the market today which is used by students. When its features are compared with the needs of students, it can be deduced that Dell Inspiron 700m's popularity among this circle is justified. The Dell Inspiron 700m is released in the market during 2004. Recognizing the fast obsolescence of computer equipments in the information technology industry, it is notable how this model retains its popularity amidst the proliferation of more advanced varieties in the market. It is reported that students and other low end markets keep the demand high for Dell Inspiron 700m. Compared with other notebooks, this model is sold at an affordable price of $489 and is available in stylish black, silver, and white designs. The competitive pricing makes it very attractive to students who are often with a limited budget. The model is also dependable in terms of functionality. Being bundled with a Pentium 4 processor, it makes computing really convenient. Dell Inspiron 700, also features a 512mb of RAM and 60 gig hard drive which is huge enough for a typical student for saving programs and other files. The notebook also has wireless capability that enable sthe user to connect to the internet.

Randel and Puglisi Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Randel and Puglisi - Essay Example Puglisi demonstrates that Wahunsonnacoc had priorities that included expansion of his kingdom at the time James Smith arrived in Jamestown and accepted the trade gesture. This narration shows the extent of established government structure and organized social form of the native Indians. Puglisi gives a chronological order of events and discusses the progressive interaction between Wahunsonnacoc and James Smith until Captain Christopher Newport comes into the picture. Randel emphasizes the perception of John Smith towards the Indians. He gives a shallow detail on how John Smith interacted with the chief who controlled the existing native Indian Kingdom by that time. He rather emphasizes the experiences of John Smith in captivity with limited information on the socio-political significance attached to such an episode to the native Indians. Randel gives much attention to the view of John Smith as a sympathizer to the Native Indians after they were overwhelmed and colonized by the Britis h. He focuses much on James town but fails to give a detailed order of event with particular involvement of the native chieftaincy during the colonization attempts. There is a significant line of similarity as far as the concept of ethno history is addressed by Randel and Puglisi. Evident misinterpretation between the John Smith as the Englishmen agent and the native chief Wahunsonnacoc seems to underlies the interaction of the two groups. Each side is presented as having planned agenda with significant deviation and battle for superiority.

Discussion Board 6-1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Discussion Board 6-1 - Assignment Example the trend of masturbation and orgasm in children and adolescent, and puberty in adolescents is important to counselors as they are able to understand certain sexual anomalies that may appear in children and adolescents as they grow. According to Rathus, Nevid and Fitchner-Rathus (2014), human beings tend to begin masturbating at early stage of development. The practice tends to continue through adolescence to adulthood. Depending on the response of the immediate society to a masturbating child, adolescents or adults may exhibit sexual passiveness or activeness. If parents of a masturbating child punished, scolded or warned the given child against masturbating, the child may grow knowing that the practice is bad and may end up not exploiting their sexual abilities. This may lead to sexually inactive adolescents with retarded sexual interest or desire. Having such knowledge may help a counselor track the beginning of particular sexual abnormalities. Rathus, Nevid and Fitchner-Rathus (2014) report that human begins begin to experience orgasm as early as during infancy to childhood, adolescence and to adulthood. Having this background knowledge is important to help a counselor dealing with clients experiencing abnormal orgasmic response trace, identify possible historical causes, and find appropriate solutions. Understanding puberty and related processes as happens among adolescents is a special issue that a counselor needs to know about human sexual development. As mentioned by Rathus, Nevid and Fitchner-Rathus (2014), puberty defines the basic onset of adolescence. Adolescence prepares individuals for adulthood encounters. Puberty and adolescence usually trigger impulsive sexual feelings that may lead to inappropriate sexual behaviors. Counselors need to understand the process of puberty during adolescence to be able to help troubled adolescents face and overcome problems and embarrassments that usually characterize the

Unit 5 speer review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Unit 5 speer review - Essay Example Par 5, line 2 and 3: â€Å"This irony here is that the product was at first quite a disaster†. The sentence is unclear or rather ambiguous. Despite its weak construction, the irony being referred to is nonexistent. Par 5, line 3: â€Å"Sven Mattisson, the man behind the technology stated:..† The extra information â€Å"the man behind the technology† should have been enclosed with commas. Moreover, instead of the colon efore the direct quotation, a simple comma should have been used. So the sentence should look like: â€Å"Sven Mattisson, the man behind the technology, stated, â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . The content is quite appealing. The introduction is organized and guides the reader throughout the essay by providing an ostensible road map. While the content is profound, little has been done on the development of the Bluetooth technology. The inclusion of the stepwise development of the technology would have bolstered the quality of the essay and the argument being

Contemporary Social Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Contemporary Social Theory - Essay Example It is not possible to discard the classical theories because modern theories have to branch out of them and as the society is a continuous story, classical theories remain forever relevant. Also we require social theories that could combine and understand many cultures and regional specialities. To understand the demography, social class structure, population, law and justice matters, sociological network and sociological geography it is necessary to have easily applicable social theories. It enables culture mapping, research, social justice and the requirements of a social welfare state. It is necessary to analyse the complexities of contemporary societies, and to understand the present social world. It is necessary to theorise communication between social systems, social interaction, and hierarchies. It is also significant to understand the configuration of power points like global trends, media and shifting political issues. Mills argues that social theory has to be combined with social imagination that shows how the personal issues could affect the large scale social structures: â€Å"Issues have to do with matters that transcend these local environments of the individual and the range of his inner life. They have to do with the organisation of many such milieux into the institution of a historical society as a whole, with the ways in which various milieux overlap and interpenetrate to form the larger structure of social and historical life,† Mills (1959, p.15). Interpreting September 11th in terms of social theory is not easy. Calhoun et al (2002, P.24) argue: â€Å"The terrorist attacks have stimulated public soul-searching. Both attacks and responses to them have raised a host of questions about social organisations, basic social institutions, and how people mobilize amid crises.† Harrington covers both classical and contemporary social theories in his book Modern Social Theory. Harrington

Research Essay on TV shows Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Research on TV shows - Essay Example During 1999-2000, reality shows such as Big Brother and Survivor were a boom in the silver screen. Watching real people competing with each other or struggling against a personal battle can be great entertainment as well as inspire and motivate viewers. Makeover programs are a significant sub category of reality television where home, garden, behaviour, appearance, wardrobes are drastically transformed to meet certain standards. There is a wide range of makeover programs such as Swan, Queer eye for the straight guy, How to look good naked, Amazing Race, etc. that project peoples personal struggles with relationships, career, sports, fear, weight and physical appearance. Similarly, home improvement makeover programs such as BBC’s Divine Designs or ABC’s most popular Extreme makeover: home edition are some of the most popular programs highlighting home improvement struggles. TV ratings have proved that people love watching makeovers or transformations undergo in the matter of an hour (reality-TV. find the best). To viewers at home anything seems possible when they watch ordinary people achieve their goals. On the flip side, beauty makeover programs have also created a culture where beauty is seen as a commodity ,that ca n be bought and sold, and that a perfect physical appearance is important for self-confidence, happiness and sense of belonging. This paper will delve into two of the most important makeover shows in the history of television – ABC’s Extreme Makeover and Extreme Makeover: Home Edition. Differences and similarities based on identity, appearance and transformation will be discussed in details. ABC’s Extreme Makeover series, first started airing in November of 2002, offers both female and male contestants a complete physical transformation that centers on thousands of dollars’ worth of cosmetic surgery. (Davis,

A New Paradigm for Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

A New Paradigm for Management - Essay Example However, it is quite possible to ignore the challenges that the organization is facing due to the failure of the firm to utilize a suitable management paradigm and practice the theories that are essential for the survival of the firm. Paradigms are very useful tools to analyze and apply concepts which are beneficial to the entire organization. It sets a standard to follow and like rules, it must be implemented to obtain order and to avoid chaos in the corporate environment. But according to William Carr written in his article "A New Paradigm for Management", he states that there are two characteristics of paradigms which must be understood, 1) they are often invisible to those who live within them, and 2) there is massive resistance to change in or abandonment of the incumbent paradigm. While it is true that a paradigm is but a mental picture of how the organization behaves, more often than not, the individuals comprising the organization is oblivious to the system of management that had been laid before them. On the other hand, the irony lies in the fact that when a change in the order of system occurs, there is a strong opposition to the new paradigm because it is viewed as a threat of disruption of the system in which the organization had established. In the Modern Management Paradigm, employee involvement is a desirable trait of a well-functioning organization. It emphasizes their contribution to the company's growth and success when they put their efforts diligently on constantly improving their task level. Lawler suggests that organizational effectiveness can be attained only by changing the ways in which organizations are managed and that the high-involvement or employee-centered management model is based on the belief that employees can be trusted to make important decisions about the management of their work.  

Why Is Water Important in Living Organisms Essay Example for Free

Why Is Water Important in Living Organisms Essay Water is very important in all living organisms, it is vital for many different things. Around 70% of our body weight is due to water. The quantity is high in organs such as lungs and brain and fluids such as blood, lymph, saliva and secretions by the organs of the digestive system. First of all water is vital in the regulation of body temperature to depending on the temperature mammals will alter the amount they sweat. If they are to warm the amount of seat will increase. Sweat reduces the body temperature because as it evaporates off the skin it cools the surface. If body temperature rises above 37 then enzymes will begin to not function properly and reactions will slow. This is because the enzymes are becoming denatured as their hydrogen bonds break and shape change. This is also relevant in plants. When water is evaporated of leaves of the plant it cools it in the same way. This is also important as plants need to be a certain temperatures so that. Plants need to be at the correct temperature so reactions take place at the fastest rate and so they grow as much as possible. This is especially important in crops and agriculture Also for plants to grow at the fastest possible rate they have to have the correct amount of water. Water is also important because without osmosis wouldn’t occur, so many important particles and nutrients wouldn’t be moved around the organism. An example of this is in the root hair cell. In the soil outside the root hair cell is a higher water potential than in the root. This is because the root hair cell has amino acids, minerals and sugars inside them. So water moves down the concentration gradient into the roots. The uptake of water in plant cells creates pressures against the rigid walls. This can also help non-woody plants stay upright. Water is pulled up the stem by transpiration pull which creates a negative pressure this causes the water molecules to stick together. Which is called cohesion tension theory. The water is transported up to the leaves and into the chlorophyll where it is used in photosynthesis. Other nutrients and molecules are transported by the water and used in different parts of the plant. Water is also used in the light dependent reaction of photosynthesis. Electrons are lost from the chlorophyll as they get excited and move done carriers. These electrons need to be replaced; this is done by the photolysis of water. The replacement of these electrons are provided from water molecules which are split using light energy. Water → protons + electrons + oxygen  As well as in plants water is important in the body. Water is the medium in which various enzyme and chemical reactions take place. It moves nutrients, hormones, antibodies and oxygen through the blood stream and lymphatic system. Also inside the body many larger molecules need to be broken down, water is used to do this. Polysaccharides are joined by glycosidic bonds. These can be broken by the process of hydrolysis, the addition of water. This splits the polysaccharides into monosaccharides. One reason this is done is so polysaccharides can be hydrolysied into soluble sugars. An example is Cellulose is first hydrolyzed to cellobiose by cellulase and then cellobiose is further hydrolyzed to glucose. Hydrolysis is an exothermic reaction. It gives off heat as it breaks the glycosidic bonds. This can be used to regulate body temperature, which is very important for the survival of mammals. If it is cold the amount of metabolic reactions will increase. Hydrolysis occurs in the early stage of respiration. Hydrolysis occurs in glycolysis. Energy is needed to activate glucose and energy comes from the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP. Water is vital for metabolic reactions. And if the body is kept at the correct temperature then many processes and reaction will not be carried out correctly. For example body temperature is 37. This is the optimum temperature for enzymes in the body. If that temperature drops the rate at which the reactions involving theses enzymes take place will drop as well.

Race and Ethnicity Essay Example for Free

Race and Ethnicity Essay Race and racial issues are all around us. Nobody can sneak behind a curtain, or tuck themselves away in a dark room to avoid this; there isn’t a way to escape racism. Our day to day lives are filled with stereotypes and overgeneralizations that make us think and judge the wrong way. We weren’t born into a race or into a category, but rather into a large melting pot. As Tim Wise said, majority of cops when asked â€Å"What would you assume about a Black or Latino male who lives in a shady neighborhood and has a nice, new car? † would respond â€Å"those men are more than likely drug dealers† just because of their race, when in fact, when compared to Black and Latino males, White males are four times more likely to be in possession of drugs at the time of an arrest. Our founders did not want this to be the case. Abraham Lincoln fought to end slavery and abolish the inequality between Human Beings, not guide us in to thinking the color of our skin shapes us and the opinions we create for others based on their â€Å"race†. Can you believe that ninety-four percent of White Americans believe that racial problems are a small issue like not being able to find the match to your shoe, whereas the other six percent are fully aware that this is a huge controversial issue? Those people who believe racism has dwindled down that much need to have an eye opener. Majority of â€Å"White Americans† are the ones who stereotype and categorize those of a different skin color. It is us â€Å"White Americans† who benefit from being the main race, and having the â€Å"White privilege†. More people need to go to a Black neighborhood and talk to those who see racism every day because in the area that about half of us live, racism is small compared to a large city. White privilege might have begun around the same time slavery had. White people, being the majority, saw the â€Å"new race† as an opportunity to become supreme ruler over something, to have large groups of people work for them. The African American community thought differently, and tried running away. Infuriated, the Whites began on a whole new level believing anyone who ran away from the plantation was sick. Slavery in general, helped create white privilege and stereotype all African Americans into the working type, and now the druggies. All these past experiences have made it harder for African Americans to strive in our society. In previous decades, they deliberately separated White and Black neighborhoods, and when a Black moved into a White neighborhood, the houses value and the neighborhoods value decreased just because the people who moved there were of a different color. It is absolutely ridiculous that racism is still around about just as much as it was seven years ago. Anybody with logical thinking would believe that it would have dwindled down to something less severe. Unfortunately, several towns are still divided and segregated because of race and skin color. I hope I get to see every race and skin color come together and work together fully, across the nation before I’m fifty, that’s thirty three years from now.

Physics Behind the Dambuster’s Bouncing Bomb

Physics Behind the Dambuster’s Bouncing Bomb Brookie Trant Introduction The Dambuster Raid and the bouncing bomb played a key role in WW2. The aim was to disrupt industrial productivity of Germany. The Raid was also a well-publicised success story when Britain was stretched to breaking point during the war. The bomb was used to destroy the Mohne and the Edersee Dams and flood the Ruhr Valley, thereby destroying a large proportion of the Germans manufacturing power; thus having the desired knock on effects for the German war effort. The bomb was initially conceived by Dr Barnes Wallis in April 1942 in a paper he wrote called ‘spherical bomb – surface torpedo’[1]. The concept was then taken up by Air Chief Marshal the Hon Sir Ralph Cochrane of the Royal Air Force a strong advocate of precision bombing. Also important to bringing the concept to fruition was Air Marshal Arthur Harris commander of Bomber Command. Through these influential commanders Wallis’ idea was brought to a committee and it given the go ahead. Wallis faced a range of practical issues such as: the size-to-weight ratio of the bomb with the ability of the aircraft to physically lift and deliver it; how much backspin was needed to be imparted to the bomb in order for it to have a controlled and accurate flight; speed of flight; height from which to drop it and the velocity of the aircraft at point of delivery. All these factors needed to be understood and overcome in order that the bomb could be delivered to the optimum point on the dam wall and then detonated. In answering this question this study will consider four key factors: the weapon design, the delivery of the weapon, the detonation and how all of these had a great enough affect to destroy the dam. It is useful at this point to qualify the definition of the bouncing bomb. The use of bouncing to describe the Operation Chastise bomb is loose. The physics of bouncing by definition requires a level of elasticity which as the object hits a solid, a fluid or a powder results in a permanent or non-permanent change in the objects form (elasticity). This doesn’t occur with the ‘bouncing’ bomb. It is better to define the Chastise Bomb as ricocheting but for the purpose of this study the phrase bouncing bomb will be used[2]. Weapon Design This was where the bomb started. A key area which needed to be addressed was the shape of the bomb. This had a major role in providing a reliable and successful bomb. This section explains the reasoning behind the cylindrical shape and how this affected the bombs delivery. The shape of the bomb was a key issue. Wallis’ initial trials used spherical models, so that identical contact with the water would be made throughout its flight; however the bounces were often too unpredictable due to release and water surface conditions. Therefore, to achieve greater stability Wallis experimented with a cylindrical bomb. This negated the unpredictability but did not stabilise the issues of trajectory and keeping it level. He realised that by using backspin these problems could be overcome. Backspin was also a key aspect in the delivery of the weapon to the detonation point. This vital aspect will be further discussed in this study in the delivery method section. Once at the point of detonation the bomb was required to explode underwater. On explosion a shock wave would be created, enough to destabilise the dam wall. The weight of water would then provide the breach. Wallis started with trying to find the correct measurements for the amount of explosive needed to breech the dam. He used a model on a scale of 1/17 of the real thing. He then used 100g of gelignite 1.2m away from the wall giving the same effect as a 10 tonne bomb 60m away from the dam. This had no effect. He continued his trials until he achieved 150g of explosive 0.3m away from the dam, which meant that he had to use 13 tonnes of explosive 15m away from the dam. When scaled back up, this would need 18 tonnes of casing which would give a 31 tonne bomb to match the effect required. This was a significantly larger bomb that could be dropped by the aircraft to be used. It was clear that he would have to find a different method. He reduced the mass to 4.3 tonnes and would use multip le bombs to breech the dam[3]. The final dimensions of the bomb were 60 inches long and 50 inches wide[4]. This is roughly 1.52m in length and 1.27m in width, with a final weight of 9,250[5]. See figure 1. Delivery Method His next problem was working out speed of the bombs, how far above the surface they needed to be dropped, the distance from the dam and the best way to control the skips of the bomb. His first trials were conducted in his garden at home. He fired marbles across a bucket of water to see whether it would bounce off the surface. It worked and he could control the skip by adjusting the catapult. He now needed to discover if he could control the bomb when it was using multiple skips. For this he needed a slightly larger apparatus and used a huge ship tank at Teddington. Starting with a spherical bomb, he tested different size-to-weight ratios and by using backspin he could control the bounces. This also helped the bomb to sink in a predictable manner when it reached the wall. Here he had success, however Wallis found the flight of the bomb was often unpredictable. He found if he increased the mass significantly it became more stable however for reasons already stated a larger bomb was impractical. Wallis had realised that stability could be achieved by using a cylindrical casing and imparting backspin. This would keep the barrel on its axis and stop it from tilting and therefore follow its correct trajectory. Much like a child’s spinning-top toy, the more backspin you gave the bomb the harder it would be to knock it off its axis, this is angular momentum (this is explained in the paragraph below). He tested the idea in the tank trying out the different revolutions. He also found that by varying the size-to-weight ratio of the cylinders he could keep a 5 ton barrel level on the water and then get it to spin down the dam once it hit the water[6]. Also by rapidly spinning the device backwards this would counteract the forward velocity of the aircraft. Wallis calculated how many bounces would be required before reaching the dam. This calculation needed to include the drop distance from the dam, the elevation of the aircraft and its forward velocity. Importantly with each bo unce the bomb would slow due to the viscosity of the water and the drag effect that it had. Using this equation Wallis was able to calculate the speed of the spin to ensure that the bomb had slowed down to almost zero velocity by the time it reached the dam[7]. He measured that the cylinder would need to be going at 450 to 500 revolutions per minute2 in order to achieve this effect. Angular momentum has the same role as linear momentum but in rotation. The equation for angular momentum is. The equation for linear momentum is â€Å"†. In the equation for angular momentum the ‘I’ replaces the ‘m’ and the ‘ω’ replaces the ‘v’. The ‘I’ is the moment of inertia which is an objects reluctance to change its state of rotational motion[8]. The equation for the moment of inertia changes with the different shapes it is acting on. For a cylinder the moment of inertia is. This meant that by increasing the mass and the radius the moment of inertia will increase making it more stable. However Wallis was restricted by the size of the planes and their ability to carry a heavy bomb. So he used the largest diameter as possible and then put the majority of the weight of the bomb as close to the edge of the cylinder as possible. This way it would have the same effect as a flywheel giving the barrel lots of m omentum. The ‘ω’ is the angular velocity which is how quick the cylinder is rotating its unit is rad s-1. The equation for ω is which shows as you increase the frequency then the ω will increase by a considerable amount. When you put the moment of inertia and angular velocity together you get the angular momentum of a rotating object. It also shows you that by increasing the angular velocity makes it much more difficult to knock the barrel off its axis. Going back to the spinning top the faster you spin it the more difficult it becomes to knock it over. This is what gave the bouncing bomb a clean flight and made sure that it remained on course and didn’t tilt off its axis. The backspin had a secondary effect. By dropping the bomb without backspin the device would naturally receive a turning effect through the horizontal axis in the opposite direction; the net result of this would be that the bomb would not slow in a uniform or predictable manner and therefore likely skip out over the dam rather than slowing and dropping down the inside face. Forward spinning the bomb would have a similar effect to that experienced by a bicycle wheel being rolled at a curb. It wants to keep going[9]. There is a third effect achieved by imparting backspin. This is the key relationship that Wallis would have been aware of and used to calculate speed, height and turning effect. This effect is the Kuttas Lift Theorem or the Kutta–Joukowski Theorem. Developed by German Martin Wihelm Kutta and Russian Nikolai Zhukovsky (Joukowski), in the early twentieth century, the theorem demonstrates the aerodynamic relationship between lift, speed of a rotating cylinder and density of the substance it is moving through (air or fluid)[10]. This theorem sometimes known as the Magnus effect when applied to the conditions of the Dam Buster raid allowed the bomb to ‘crawl’ down the face of the dam wall. The water surrounding the cylinder in conjunction with the back rotation caused striking hydrodynamic forces that pulled the bomb back towards the wall[11]. As seen in figure 2. All three of these effects were identified, quantified, understood and overcome by Wallis, through his thorough trials and experiments and his deep knowledge of physics. Detonation Mechanism The aim of Operation Chastise was to blow up the dam; the easiest way to do this would be to blow the explosive charge on the water side of the dam at the optimum depth. This would make the most of the explosive power. With the weight of the water behind the explosion, it would increase the affect of the force of the bomb. This weight would pressure the dam to breaking through whatever weaknesses had been caused by the initial force of the bomb. The bomb contained three hydrostatic pistols which measured the water pressure as the bomb sank, the bomb would then detonate at a depth of 30 feet. It also had a time fuse that would detonate after 90 seconds as a backup. This was reasonably well developed technology drawn from the experiences of the First World War naval fighting and the ongoing anti-submarine war effort. In essence the hydrostatic pressure, used in the hydrodynamic pistol, increases uniformly according to the simplified equation of P = p g h (where P is hydrostatic pressur e, p is the fluid density (kg/m3), g is gravity and h is height of the water)[12]; the change in the hydrostatic pressure would trigger the hydrodynamic pistol to explode at a depth of 30 feet (9.14m)[13]. Target Effect Once delivered to the detonation point against the dam wall at the correct depth the weapon exploded. This maximised the benefits of the bubble pulse effect typical of underwater explosions, greatly increasing its effectiveness of the explosion and the pressure. The dam wasn’t going to fall by just using the explosive power of the TNT and RDX applied to the external wall of the dam, but by using the pressure of 30 foot (9.14m) of water pressing down on the explosion. The initial force exerted by the exploding bomb was meant to weaken the dam; the water would do the rest. Compared to air water has a significantly higher density than air. Water has a higher quotient of inertia than air. Although this makes water more difficult to move it does mean that it is an excellent conductor of shock waves from an explosion. The damage achieved by these shock waves will be amplified by the subsequent physical movement of water and by the repeated secondary shockwaves or â€Å"bubble pulse †[14]. The small seemingly insignificant cracks formed by the bomb would then be exploited by the water forcing the gaps to get larger until the point where the dam couldn’t hold it any longer. The dam then crumbled. The equation for pressure is (P=pressure, F=force, A=area) this can be rearranged to give this shows us that the pressure will make a huge difference to the force of the explosion. Summary In summarising this study of the physics behind the dam buster raid it is important to recognise the breadth of Barnes Wallis’s experimentation and trials. He overcame the issues of weapon design: its explosive effect and detonation method and issues of casing; the delivery method in terms of speed, height and skip effect; the detonation method; and then the weapon effect on the target. A clear understanding physics and a deep understanding of fluid mechanics, hydrodynamic pressure and the crucial consequence of Magnus Effect were essential for Wallis’s concept to succeed. Bibliography 1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing_bomb I used wikipedia just to gain some background knowledge and to use in my introduction. 2 Johnson, W. (1998). Ricochet of non-spinning projectiles, mainly from water Part I: Some historical contributions. International Journal of Impact Engineering (UK: Elsevier) – this was from the same Wikipedia page but the extract was taken from this paper written by W. Johnson. 3 http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~stinner/stinner/pdfs/1989-dambusters.pdf this is another paper on the bouncing bomb providing information on the facts and figures on the bomb 4 http://everything2.com/title/bouncing+bomb again this is just facts about the bouncing bomb itself 5 http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/617-squadron-and-the-dams-raid/designing-the-upkeep-mine.aspx another with facts an about the bombs dimensions and weight ect. 6 http://simscience.org/fluid/red/DamBusters.html this is a paper for those doing a-level so has very relevant information on it and is a reliable source 7 http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_did_Barnes_Wallace_decide_to_spin_the_dambusters_bomb_backwards#slide=16article=Why_did_Barnes_Wallace_decide_to_spin_the_dambusters_bomb_backwards this is using Wikipedia again but it is a general statement so not needing a confirmation reference 8 Advanced Physics (p.101/105) – this is a book used in the physics a-level it gives a great level of understanding and was a very useful book when wanting to look beyond the syllabus 9 A.M. Kuethe and J.D. Schetzer (1959), Foundations of Aerodynamics, John Wiley Sons, Inc., New York ISBN 0-471-50952-3. – this is a book and it explains basic aerodynamics which can also be related to the forces acting on an object in fluid which is the context used in this essay 10 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/357684/Magnus-effect this briefly explains the Magnus effect which is used when the bomb is trying to sink down the dam face 11 Pascal’s law – found on http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pascal-laws-d_1274.html 12 http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/dambusters.htm information about the bomb. 13 Fox, Robert; McDonald, Alan; Pritchard, Philip (2012). Fluid Mechanics (8 ed.). John Wiley Sons – another book used briefly to explain how the bomb created a large enough force to break the dam. [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouncing_bomb [2] Johnson, W. (1998). Ricochet of non-spinning projectiles, mainly from water Part I: Some historical contributions. International Journal of Impact Engineering (UK: Elsevier) [3] http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~stinner/stinner/pdfs/1989-dambusters.pdf [4] http://everything2.com/title/bouncing+bomb [5] http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/617-squadron-and-the-dams-raid/designing-the-upkeep-mine.aspx [6] http://simscience.org/fluid/red/DamBusters.html [7]http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_did_Barnes_Wallace_decide_to_spin_the_dambusters_bomb_backwards#slide=16article=Why_did_Barnes_Wallace_decide_to_spin_the_dambusters_bomb_backwards [8] Advanced Physics (p.101) [9]http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_did_Barnes_Wallace_decide_to_spin_the_dambusters_bomb_backwards#slide=16article=Why_did_Barnes_Wallace_decide_to_spin_the_dambusters_bomb_backwards [10] A.M. Kuethe and J.D. Schetzer (1959), Foundations of Aerodynamics, John Wiley Sons, Inc., New York ISBN 0-471-50952-3. [11] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/357684/Magnus-effect [12] Pascal’s law [13] http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/dambusters.htm [14]Fox, Robert; McDonald, Alan; Pritchard, Philip (2012). Fluid Mechanics (8 ed.). John Wiley Sons.